SEMICONDUCTORS FOR ALTERNATIVE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: OPPORTUNITIES AND MARKETS

Chapter 1 Introduction 1-1

Chapter 2 Solar Energy 2-1

2.1 Solar Infrastructure 2-1
2.1.1 Current developments 2-2
2.1.2 Worldwide installed photovoltaic totals 2-9
2.1.3 Applications of PV 2-11
2.1.3.1 PV Power Stations 2-11
2.1.3.2 PV in Buildings 2-13
2.1.3.3 PV in Transport 2-15
2.1.3.4 PV in Standalone Devices 2-18
2.1.3.5 Rural Electrification 2-18
2.1.3.6 Solar Roadways 2-19
2.1.4 Economics of PV 2-19
2.1.4.1 Power Costs 2-19
2.1.4.2 Grid Parity 2-20
2.1.4.3 Financial Incentives 2-21
2.1.5 Solar Forecast 2-24
2.2 Semiconductor Technology 2-26
2.2.1 Inverter/Converter Devices 2-26
2.2.2 Key Component Semiconductor Devices 2-35
2.3 Forecasts 2-44
2.3.1 Inverter Forecast 2-44
2.3.2 Semiconductor Forecast 2-52

Chapter 3 Wind Energy 3-1

3.1 Wind Energy Infrastructure 3-1
3.1.1 Electricity Generation 3-2
3.1.1.1 Grid Management System 3-2
3.1.1.2 Capacity Factor 3-3
3.1.2 Turbine Placement 3-4
3.1.3 Offshore Wind Farms 3-4
3.1.4 Utilization Of Wind Power 3-9
3.1.5 Small Scale Wind Power 3-16
3.1.6 Economics And Feasibility 3-17
3.1.6.1 Growth And Cost Trends 3-17
3.1.6.2 Theoretical Potential 3-22
3.1.6.3 Direct Costs 3-22
3.1.6.4 External Costs 3-23
3.1.6.5 Incentives 3-24
3.2 Semiconductor Technology 3-25
3.2.1 Key Component Semiconductor Devices 3-25
3.2.2 Semiconductor Forecast 3-29

Chapter 4 Fuel Cells 4-1

4.1 Fuel Cell Infrastructure 4-1
4.1.1 Fuel Cell Design 4-1
4.1.2 History 4-3
4.1.3 Types of fuel cells 4-4
4.1.3.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane 4-4
4.1.3.2 Phosphoric Acid 4-6
4.1.3.3 Direct Methanol 4-8
4.1.3.4 Alkaline 4-8
4.1.3.6 Molten Carbonate 4-10
4.1.3.7 Solid Oxide 4-12
4.1.3.8 Proton Exchange Fuel Cells 4-15
4.1.3.9 Regenerative (Reversible) Fuel Cells 4-20
4.1.4 Efficiency 4-20
4.1.4.1 Fuel cell efficiency 4-20
4.1.4.2 In practice 4-21
4.1.5 Fuel cell applications 4-23
4.1.5.1 Applications 4-24
4.1.5.2 Hydrogen Transportation And Refueling 4-28
4.1.6 Fuel Cell Manufacturers 4-34
4.2 Semiconductor Technology 4-46
4.2.1 Key Component Semiconductor Devices 4-46
4.2.2 Semiconductor Forecast 4-55

Chapter 5 Storage/Electric Vehicle Technology 5-1

5.1 Storage/Electric Vehicle Infrastructure 5-1
5.1.1 Usage And Applications 5-2
5.1.2 Charging And Discharging 5-4
5.1.3 Active Components 5-6
5.1.3.1 Common Rechargeable Battery Types 5-9
5.1.3.2 Less Common Types 5-10
5.1.4 Recent Developments 5-11
5.1.5 Batteries for Electric Vehicles 5-16
5.1.5.1 NiMH Batteries 5-16
5.1.5.2 EV Li-Ion Rechargeable Batteries 5-20
5.1.5.3 Start-Stop Batteries 5-38
5.1.6 Vehicle Charging 5-44
5.1.6.1 Grid Impacts 5-48
5.1.6.2 Communication 5-48
5.2 Forecasts 5-54
5.2.1 HEV/EV Forecast 5-54
5.2.2 Charging Station Forecast 5-56
5.2.3 Key Component Semiconductor Devices - HEV/EV 5-59
5.2.4 Key Component Semiconductor Devices –Charging Stations 5-63
5.2.5 Semiconductor Forecast – HEV/EV 5-72
5.2.3 Semiconductor Forecast – Charging Station 5-74

Chapter 6 Geothermal Energy 6-1

6.1 Geothermal Energy Technology Infrastructure 6-1
6.1.1 Geothermal Technologies 6-1
6.1.2 Advantages 6-6
6.1.3 Disadvantages 6-7
6.1.4 History Of Development 6-8
6.1.5 Developments Around The World 6-8
6.1.6 Geothermal Forecast 6-17
6.2 Semiconductor Technology 6-21
6.2.1 Key Component Semiconductor Devices 6-21
6.2.2 Semiconductor Forecast 6-24

Chapter 7 Nuclear Power 7-1

7.1 Nuclear Power Infrastructure 7-1
7.1.1 History 7-6
7.1.1.1 Origins 7-6
7.1.1.2 Early Years 7-7
7.1.1.3 Development 7-8
7.1.2 Future Of The Industry 7-10
7.1.2.1 Micro Reactors 7-12
7.1.2.2 Small-Medium Reactors 7-15
7.1.3 Nuclear Reactor Forecast 7-32
7.2 Semiconductor Technology 7-54
7.2.1 Key Component Semiconductor Devices 7-54
7.2.2 Semiconductor Forecast 7-56

Chapter 8 Energy Harvesting 8-1

8.1 Harvesting Energy 8-1
8.1.1 Vibration Energy 8-3
8.1.2 Thermoelectric Energy 8-6
8.1.3 Electromagnetic Energy 8-11
8.1.4 Piezoelectric Energy 8-13
8.1.5 Electrostatic (Capacitive) Energy 8-15
8.1.6 Light Energy 8-16
8.2 Storing Energy 8-16

Chapter 9 Hydroelectricity 9-1

9.1 Introduction 9-1
9.2 Generating Methods 9-2
9.2.1 Conventional (Dams) 9-2
9.2.2 Pumped-Storage 9-5
9.2.3 Run Of The River 9-8
9.2.4 Tidal Power 9-12
9.2.4.1 Tidal Stream Generator 9-13
9.2.4.2 Tidal Barrage 9-14
9.2.4.3 Dynamic Tidal Power 9-14
9.2.4.4 Tidal Lagoon 9-14
9.3 Sizes, Types And Capacities Of Hydroelectric Facilities 9-16
9.3.1 Large Facilities 9-16
9.3.2 Small Facilities 9-16
9.3.3 Micro Facilities 9-17
9.3.4 Pico Facilities 9-19
9.3.5 Underground Facilities 9-19
9.4 Forecasts 9-22
9.4.1 World Hydroelectric Forecast 9-22
9.4.1.1 Large Hydro Power Plants 9-22
9.4.1.2 Small And Micro Hydro Power Plants 9-25
9.4.2 Semiconductor Forecast 9-27

List Of Tables

2.1 Total Photovoltaic Peak Power Capacity By Country 2-10
2.2 World's Largest Photovoltaic Power Plants 2-12
2.3 Required PV PCS System Functions 2-32
2.4 PV Inverter Market Distribution 2-48
2.5 Forecast Of On-Grid Inverters By Type 2-51
2.6 Forecast Of Semiconductors For Solar Applications 2-53
3.1 Operational Offshore Wind Farms 3-7
3.2 Offshore Wind Farms Under Construction 3-8
3.3 Installed Windpower Capacity (MW) 3-10
3.4 Annual Wind Power Generation (TWh) 3-11
3.5 U.S. Installed Capacity (Megawatts) 3-13
4.1 Fuel Cell Comparisons 4-17
4.2 Fuel Cell Details 4-18
4.3 Worldwide Fuel Cell Shipments By Application 4-41
4.4 Worldwide Fuel Cell Shipments By Region 4-42
4.5 Worldwide Fuel Cell Shipments By Type 4-45
5.1 Rechargeable Battery Technologies 5-7
5.2 10-Year Costs For Electric Vehicle Batteries 5-18
5.3 Breakeven Costs For EV Batteries – 40 Mile Range 5-19
5.4 Breakeven Costs For EV Batteries – 100 Mile Range 5-21
5.5 Types Of Charging Stations 5-45
5.6 Typical Charging Times By Power Level And Electric Vehicle 5-47
5.7 Forecast Of Charging Stations Shipments By Region 5-58
5.8 Forecast Of Semiconductors For HEV/EV Automobiles 5-73
5.9 Costs For Various HEV/EV Chargers 5-75
7.1 Worldwide Nuclear Reactors By Region 7-2
7.2 Small-Medium Reactors 7-15
7-3 Number Of Reactors In Operation Worldwide 7-32
7-4 Number Of Reactors Under Construction Worldwide 7-33
7-5 Nuclear Share In Electricity Generation (%) 7-34
8.1 Comparison Between Different Ambient Energy Sources 8-2
9.1 Conventional Hydroelectric Power Stations In Service 9-4
9.2 Pumped-Storage Hydroelectric Power Stations 9-9
9.3 Run Of The River Power Stations 9-11
9.4 Tidal Power Stations 9-15
9.5 Forecast Of Small And Mini Power Plants In Europe 9-26

List Of Figures

2.1 Flat Plate Solar Collector 2-3
2.2 Parabolic Trough Solar Collector 2-4
2.3 Solar Dish/Engine Collector 2-5
2.4 Solar Power Tower Collector 2-6
2.5 Forecast Of Solar Power 2-25
2.6 Centralized Inverter Structure 2-27
2.7 String Inverter Structure 2-29
2.8 Micro-Inverter Structure 2-30
2.9 Micro-Converter Structure 2-34
2.10 Block Diagram Of Solar Inverter System 2-37
2.11 Full Bridge IGBT Topology 2-42
2.12 Solar Installations By Country By Type 2-50
3.1 Evolution Of U.S. Commercial Wind Technology 3-5
3.2 U.S. Installed Capacity (Megawatts) 3-14
3.3 Worldwide Wind Turbine Shipments 3-19
3.4 Wind Power As Percent Of Electricity 3-21
3.5 Semiconductor Revenues From Wind Energy Systems 3-31
4.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell 4-5
4.2 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) Fuel Cell 4-7
4.3 Alkaline (AFC) Fuel Cell 4-9
4.4 Molten Carbonate (MCFC) Fuel Cell 4-11
4.5 Solid Oxide (SOFC) Fuel Cell 4-13
4.6 Proton Exchange Fuel Cell 4-16
4.7 Transition To A Hydrogen Economy 4-29
4.8 Hydrogen Reformer Fueling Station 4-32
4.9 Diversified Fuel Cell Development 4-38
4.10 Fuel Cell Inverter In Car 4-47
4.11 Block Diagram Of Fuel Cell Inverter 4-51
4.12 Semiconductor Revenues From Fuel Cell Systems 4-56
5.1 Mass And Volume Energy Densities Of Secondary Cells 5-8
5.2 Battery Capacity For An Electric Vehicle 5-19
5.3 Battery Price With Increased Production 5-20
5.4 Cathode Material Cost 5-23
5.5 Target For Li-Ion Rechargeable Batteries 5-25
5.6 Diverse Range Of Candidates For Cathodes 5-28
5.7 Improving Cathode Materials 5-30
5.8 Battery Loads - Conventional Versus Stop-Start System 5-35
5.9 Shipments Of Start-Stop, HEV, PHEV, AND EV 5-38
5.10 Start-Stop Market Forecast 5-39
5.11 EV Communications Control System Overview 5-51
5.12 Forecast of Global Sales of HEVs and EVs 5-57
5.13 Forecast Of Charging Stations Shipments By Type 5-59
5.14 A Simple Diagram Of A HEV Traction Drive System 5-61
5.15 A More Complex Diagram Of PEEM In A Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) 5-62
5.16 Schematic Of Charging Stations 5-65
5.17 Circuit Diagram For Level 1 & 2 Charger 5-69
5.18 Circuit Diagram For Level 3 Charger 5-71
5.19 Revenue Forecast For Semiconductors For HEV/EV Chargers 5-77
6.1 Geothermal With Well to Magma 6-2
6.2 Conventional Geothermal Well 6.4
6.3 Geothermal Heat Pump 6-5
6.4 Forecast of Geothermal Installed Capacity 6-18
6.5 Forecast of Semiconductors for Geothermal 6-27
7.1 Hyperion Nuclear Reactor 7-13
7.2 Heat Transfer For Different Primary Coolants 7-30
7.3 Historical And Projected World Energy Use By Energy Source, 1980-2030 7-52
8.1 Technologies for Harvesting Energy 8-4
8.2 Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvester 8-5
8.3 Thermoelectric Energy Converter And Photovoltaic Cell 8-7
8.4 The Four Main Blocks Of A Typical Energy-Scavenging System 8-9
8.5 The LTC3108 Converter/Power Manager 8-12
8.6 Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting Beam and MEMS Varactors 8-14
8.7 Constant-Current/Constant-Voltage Battery Charging Model 8-17
9.1 Cross Section Of A Conventional Hydroelectric Dam 9-12
9.2 Cross Section Of A Pumped Storage Hydro System 9-6
9.3 Forecast For Hydroelectric Power Generation 9-23
9.4 A Six Pulse Diode Bridge ELC With IAG System Configuration 9-29
9.5 Cost Breakdown Of A 500 Mw Hydropower Plant 9-31
9.6 Cost Breakdown For Small Hydro Projects 9-32
9.7 Global Small And Micro Hydro Power New Capacity Forecast 9-33
9.8 Global Semiconductor Revenues For Small And Micro Hydro Power Forecast 9-34